Daydream - Wikipedia

Daydreaming is the stream of consciousness that detaches from current, external tasks when attention drifts to a more personal and internal direction. Daydream FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Aspectofhumanthoughtandconsciousness Thisarticleisaboutthementalactivity.Forotheruses,seeDaydream(disambiguation)andDaydreaming(disambiguation). NottobeconfusedwithWakingdream. Daydreaminggentlemanin1912 Daydreamingisthestreamofconsciousnessthatdetachesfromcurrent,externaltaskswhenattentiondriftstoamorepersonalandinternaldirection.Thisphenomenoniscommoninpeople'sdailylifeshownbyalarge-scalestudyinwhichparticipantsspend47%oftheirwakingtimeonaverageondaydreaming.[1]Therearevariousnamesofthisphenomenonincludingmindwandering,fantasy,spontaneousthoughts,etc.DaydreamingisthetermusedbyJeromeL.Singerwhoseresearchprogramslaidthefoundationfornearlyallthesubsequentresearchinthisareatoday.Thelistofterminologiesassignedbyresearcherstodayputschallengesonidentifyingthecommonfeaturesofthephenomenon,inthiscasedaydreaming,andonbuildingcollectiveworkamongresearchers.[2] Therearemanytypesofdaydreams,andthereisnoconsistentdefinitionamongpsychologists.However,thecharacteristicthatiscommontoallformsofdaydreamingmeetsthecriteriaformilddissociation.[3]Also,theimpactsofdifferenttypesofdaydreamsarenotidentical.Whilesomearedisruptiveanddeleterious,othersmaybebeneficialinsomeway.[4] Contents 1Societyandthenegativevs.positiveaspects 2Functionsofdaydreaming 2.1Defaultmodenetwork 3Functionaltheories 4Psychologicalstudies 4.1Self-reflection 5Recentresearch 6Seealso 7References 8Externallinks Societyandthenegativevs.positiveaspects[edit] DaydreambyPaulCésarHelleu Intherecentresearch,identifiedcostsofdaydreamingoutnumberthepotentialbenefits.MooneyhamandSchoolerreviewedstudiespublishedfrom1995andfound29studiesrelatedtocostscomparedtoonly6recentstudiesarguingfunctionalbenefitsofdaydreaming.Someofthemajorcostsofdaydreamingsummarizedbythereviewareassociatedwithperformancessuchasreading,sustainedattention,mood,etc.[4] Thenegativeassociationsofdaydreamingonreadingperformancehavebeenstudiedthemostthoroughly.Researchshowsthatthereisanegativecorrelationbetweendaydreamingfrequencyandreadingcomprehensionperformance.Tobespecific,therearecostsassociatedwithdaydreamingduringreadingandthecostsincludedeficitsofitem-specificcomprehensionandmodel-buildingability.[4] Daydream Disruptivedaydreams,orspontaneousdaydreamingisalsocharacteristicofpeoplewithattention-deficithyperactivedisorder,andcanbeviewedinanegativelightaschildrenwithADHDtendtohaveamoredifficulttimeconcentratingontheirsurroundingsandbeingmindfulofcurrenttasks.[5][6] Negativemoodisanotherassociationofdaydreaming.Researchfindspeoplegenerallyreportalowerhappinessratingwhentheyaredaydreamingthanwhentheyarenot.Evenduringactivitiestheyotherwisewouldenjoy.Forthepositivedaydreaming,peoplereportthesamehappinessratingbetweencurrenttasksandpleasantthingstheyaremorelikelytodaydreamabout.Thisfindingremainstrueacrossallactivities.Theimportantrelationshipbetweenmoodanddaydreamingfromtime-laganalysisisthatthelattercomesfirst,nottheotherwayround.[4] Formoreexamples,inthelate19thcentury,ToniNelsonarguedthatsomedaydreamswithgrandiosefantasiesareself-gratifyingattemptsat"wishfulfillment".Stillinthe1950s,someeducationalpsychologistswarnedparentsnottolettheirchildrendaydream,forfearthatthechildrenmaybesuckedinto"neurosisandevenpsychosis".[3] Whilethecostofdaydreamingismorethoroughlydiscussed,theassociatedbenefitisunderstudied.Onepotentialreasonisthepayoffofdaydreamingisusuallyprivateandhiddencomparedtothemeasurablecostfromexternalgoal-directedtasks.Itishardtoknowandrecordpeople'sprivatethoughtssuchaspersonalgoalsanddreams,sowhetherdaydreamingsupportsthesethoughtsisdifficulttodiscuss.[2] Inrecentstudies,Immordinoetal.identifiedaseeminglyhiddenbutimportantbenefitofdaydreaming.Theyarguedthatthemindisnotidleduringdaydreaming,thoughitisatrestwhennotattentivelyengaginginexternaltasks.Rather,duringthisprocess,peopleindulgethemselvesinandreflectonfantasies,memories,futuregoalsandpsychologicalselveswhilestillbeingabletocontrolenoughattentiontokeepeasytasksgoingandmonitortheexternalenvironment.Thus,thepotentialbenefitsaretheskillsofinternalreflectiondevelopedindaydreamingtoconnectemotionalimplicationofdailylifeexperiencewithpersonalmeaningbuildingprocess.[7] Despitethedeleteriousimpactofdaydreamingonaptitudetestswhichmosteducationalinstitutionsputheavyemphasison,Immrdinoetal.arguedthatitisimportantforchildrentogettheinternalreflectionskillsfromdaydreaming.Researchshowsthatchildrenequippedwiththeseskillshavehigheracademicabilityandaresociallyandemotionallybetteroff.Also,whentheexternalenvironmentdemandsoverlyhighattentionfromchildren,itisreasonabletobelievetheseusefulskillsareunderdeveloped.[7] Functionsofdaydreaming[edit] Sincedaydreamingisdisruptiveinexternaltasksanditspotentialbenefitsarequiteprivateandsubtle,itisworthdiscussingthereasonwhydaydreamingexistsandoccupiesalargeamountofpeople'swakingtime. MooneyhamandSchoolersummarizedfivepotentialfunctionsdaydreamingserves:futurethinking,creativethinking,attentionalcycling,dishabituationandrelieffromboredom. Futurethinking,alsoknownasautobiographicalthinking,servesasawaytospeculateandanticipatefutureevents.Daydreamingcandisruptexternalactivities,butthebenefitoffuturethinkingcanbepaidofflater,asitallowsbetterplanningandpreparationoffuturegoals.Peoplearemorelikelytohavefuture-focuseddaydreamsthanpresent-focusedandpast-focused.[4]Daydreamingcanbeausefultooltohelpkeeppeoplemindfuloftheirrelevantgoals,suchasimaginingfuturesuccessofagoaltomotivateaccomplishingadifficultoruninterestingtask.[8] Creativethinkingisanotherfunctionofdaydreamingassociatedwithincreasedcreativity.Whentacklingunsolvedproblems,themostproductiveincubationperiodsintermsofcreativesolutionsarethoseinundemandingconditionsratherthanattention-demandingconditions.[9]Moreover,thefrequencyofdaydreamingisthehighestduringundemandingandeasytasks.[10]Thus,itisreasonabletohypothesizethatdaydreamingplaysanimportantroleingeneratingcreativeproblem-solvingprocesses.[4]Studieshavealsofoundthatintentionaldaydreamingismoreeffectivewhenfocusedoncreativethoughtprocessing,ratherthanspontaneousordisruptivedaydreams.[8] Attentionalcyclingisanadaptivefunctionofdaydreaminginthatithelpstokeeppeople'sbehaviorsrelativelyoptimalwhentherearemultipletargetproblemsatthesametime.Whenpeoplehavemanygoals,daydreamingprovidesanopportunityforpeopletoswitchamongdifferentstreamsofinformationandthoughts.Thus,thisabilityallowspeopletochooseappropriatebehaviorstodealwithmultiplesituations.[4] Dishabituationisbeneficialinthesituationwhentheinternalresponsetotheexternalstimulusdecreasesastheexternalstimulusrepeatsduringlearningprocess.Oneresearchidentifiedthiseffectinlearningandshowedthatlearningismoreeffectivewithdistributedpracticesratherthanmassedpractices.[11]Daydreamingcanprovidetheopportunitytoallowthoughtstodriftawayfromintensivelearningtemporarilyandtofocusagainwiththerefreshedcapabilitytocontinuefocusingonattention-demandingtasks.[4] Relieffromboredomisanobviousandadaptivefunctionofdaydreaming.Whenpeoplearedoingboringtasks,daydreamingallowstheirthoughtstodetachfromcurrentexternaltaskstorelieveboredom.Atthesametime,thistemporarydetachmentwillnotstopexternalactivitiescompletelywhentheseactivitiesarenecessary.Also,daydreamingcancausetheperceptionthattimemovesmorequickly.[4] DaydreamingcanalsobeusedtoimagineSocialSituations.Humansarenaturallyorientedtobesocialinbehaviorandactivelyseektheapprovalandcompanyofothers.Socialdaydreamingoccursaspastsocialoccurrencesandfutureoutcomesofanticipatedeventsandconversationsareimagined.[12]Accordingtoresearch,daydreamingandsocialcognitionhavestrongoverlappingsimilaritieswhenactivatedportionsofthebrainareobserved[13][14]Thesefindingsindicatethatdaydreamingisanextensionofthebrain'sexperienceofsocialcognition.Thisislikelybecausedaydreamsareoftenfocusedonthementalrepresentationsofsocialevents,experiences,andpeople.Itwasalsoobservedthatalargeportionofimplicitlyoccurringdaydreams,approximately71%,weresocial.[15]Accordingtorecentresearch,itwasalsofoundthatpositiverumination(deepthought)causedincreasesintheimaginingofpositivefutureevents,evenindepressedpeople.Ontheoppositeendofthespectrum,negativeruminationcausedanincreaseinthoughtsofnegativefutureeventsindepressedindividualsbutdidnotcauseasignificantincreaseinthoughtsofnegativefutureeventsinthosewhowerenotdepressed.[16] Defaultmodenetwork[edit] Mainarticle:Defaultmodenetwork Accordingtoseveralstudies,daydreamingappearstobethebrain'sdefaultsettingwhennootherexternaltaskisoccupyingitsattention.Agroupofregionsinthebraincalledthedefaultmodenetworkislituponlywhenthebrainisleftinasortof‘idle’state.Theseareasofthebrainlightupinsequenceonlywhiledaydreamingiscommencing.[17][13] Inonestudy,itwasobservedthatupto60–80%ofbrainenergywasconsumedwhilethebrainwasnotactivelyengagedinanyexternaltask.Inotherwords,daydreamingconsumesasmuchbrainenergyasothercomplexexternaltasks.[17]Daydreamingisnottheonlyformofwaysinwhichthebrainconsumesenergyduetothought.Thehumanbrainconsumesover20%oftheenergyinthehumanbody.Thus,atwohourchessmatchmayburnover560calories,andreadingfor30minutesmayburnaround42calories.[18][19] Functionaltheories[edit] Despitetheevidencesuggestingdaydreaming/mindwanderinginvolvesthedisengagementofthemindonapresenttask,therehasyettobeacompleteconsensusonhowtheprocessofmindwanderingoccurs.[20]Threetheorieshavebeendevisedtoexplaintheoccurrencesandreasonsbehindwhypeopledaydream.Althougheachtheoryisunique,eachportraysinformationthatistrueandobservable.Thesetheoriesarethedistractibilityaccount,executive-functionaccount,andthedecouplingaccount.[21] Thedistractibilityaccounttheorizesthatdistractingstimulus,whetherinternalorexternal,reflectsafailuretodisregardorcontroldistractionsinthemind.[22]Accordingtothistheory,thebrainactivityincreasesinresponsetoanincreaseinattentiontomind-wanderingandthemindtendstodwellontaskunrelatedthoughts(TUT's).[21] Theexecutive-functionaccounttheorizesthatthemindfailstocorrectlyprocesstaskrelevantevents.ThistheoryisbasedontheobservationofTUTcausesanincreaseinerrorsregardingtaskfocusedthinking,especiallytasksrequiringexecutivecontrol.[21][20] Thedecouplingaccountsuggeststhatattentionbecomesremoved,ordecoupled,fromperceptualinformationinvolvinganexternaltask,andcouplestoaninternalprocess.Inthisprocess,TUTisenhancedasinternalthoughtsaredisengagedfromsurroundingdistractionsastheparticipant‘tunesout’thesurroundingenvironment.[21][22] Psychologicalstudies[edit] Freudianpsychologyinterpreteddaydreamingasexpressionoftherepressedinstinctssimilarlytothoserevealingthemselvesinnighttimedreams.Likenighttimedreams,daydreams,also,areanexampleofwish-fulfillment(basedoninfantileexperiences),andareallowedtosurfacebecauseofrelaxedcensorship.Hepointedoutthat,incontrasttonighttimedreams,whichareoftenconfusingandincoherent,thereseemstobeaprocessof"secondaryrevision"infantasiesthatmakesthemmorelucid,likedaydreaming.Thestateofdaydreamingisakindofliminalstatebetweenwaking(withtheabilitytothinkrationallyandlogically)andsleeping.TheystandinmuchthesamerelationtothechildhoodmemoriesfromwhichtheyarederivedasdosomeoftheBaroquepalacesofRometotheancientruinswhosepavementsandcolumnshaveprovidedthematerialforthemorerecentstructures.[23] Inthelate1960s,cognitivepsychologistsJeromeL.SingerofYaleUniversityandJohnS.AntrobusoftheCityCollegeofNewYork,createdadaydreamquestionnaire.Thequestionnaire,calledtheImaginalProcessesInventory(IPI),hasbeenusedtoinvestigatedaydreams.PsychologistsLeonardGiambraandGeorgeHubausedtheIPIandfoundthatdaydreamers'imaginaryimagesvaryinthreeways:howvividorenjoyablethedaydreamsare,howmanyguilt-orfear-filleddaydreamstheyhave,andhow"deeply"intothedaydreampeoplego.[3] Humanisticpsychologyonotherhand,foundnumerousexamplesofpeopleincreativeorartisticcareers,suchascomposers,novelistsandfilmmakers,developingnewideasthroughdaydreaming.Similarly,researchscientists,mathematiciansandartistshavedevelopednewideasbydaydreamingabouttheirsubjectareas.[24] Self-reflection[edit] Daydreamingcanalsobeusedtorevealpersonalaspectsaboutanindividual.Inanexperimentcalled“theDirectedDaydream”(Desoille,Robert,1965)Desoillehadasubjectrestonacouchandtheninvitedthemtodaydreamaboutaseriesofobjectsandevents.Thesedaydreamscanrevealimplicitpersonalitytraitsofthepersonbasedonthedetailsimagined.Thesubjectsareaskedtoimagineaswordorvasefirst,thentoimagineclimbingamountain,andthenascendingintospace.Thesubjectisthenaskedtovisualizeawizard,awitch,andadragon.Subjectswhoimaginemoredetailsandsleekobjectsoftenseethemselvesasmoreusefulandholdabelieftheyarecapableofgrowth.Throughthedaydream,whichcaninvolvemanyfantasticalelements,characteristicssuchasafearofmenoradesiretosubdueaselfishpersonalitytraitcanberevealed.[25] Self-reflectioniswhenanindividual'sactionsorthoughtsarereplayedorrehearsedinthemind. Reflectivedaydreamingcanbebothbeneficialanddetrimental.Overfocusingonnegativeexperiencesfromthepastandpotentialnegativefutureeventscausedanincreaseinnegativityandatemporaryreductioninpositivemood.[16]Self-reflectioncanalsohaveanti-depressanteffectsandanincreaseinplanningforthefuture,creativity,andpositivism.Whetherapersonwillexperienceapositiveornegativeresponsefromself-reflectiondependsonthoughtcontentandtheindividual'scurrentmood.Itishypothesizedthatfrequentnegativereflectionisstronglyassociatedwithanindividual'sfeelingsofguiltandfear,andahistoryofpoorattentioncontrol.[20] Recentresearch[edit] EricKlinger'sresearchinthe1980sshowedthatmostdaydreamsareaboutordinary,everydayeventsandhelptoremindusofmundanetasks.Klinger'sresearchalsoshowedthatover75%ofworkersin"boringjobs",suchaslifeguardsandtruckdrivers,usevividdaydreamsto"easetheboredom"oftheirroutinetasks.Klingerfoundthatfewerthan5%oftheworkers'daydreamsinvolvedexplicitlysexualthoughtsandthatviolentdaydreamswerealsouncommon.[3] IsraelihighschoolstudentswhoscoredhighontheDaydreamingScaleoftheIPIhadmoreempathythanstudentswhoscoredlow.Somepsychologistsusethementalimagerycreatedduringtheirclients'daydreamingtohelpgaininsightintotheirmentalstateandmakediagnoses.[26][27] Otherrecentresearchhasalsoshownthatdaydreaming,muchlikenighttimedreaming,isatimewhenthebrainconsolidateslearning.[citationneeded]Daydreamingmayalsohelppeopletosortthroughproblemsandachievesuccess.ResearchwithfMRIshowsthatbrainareasassociatedwithcomplexproblem-solvingbecomeactivatedduringdaydreamingepisodes.[28][29] ResearchbyHarvardpsychologistDeirdreBarretthasfoundthatpeoplewhoexperiencevividdream-likementalimagesreservethewordforthese,whereasmanyotherpeoplewhentheytalkabout"daydreaming"refertomilderimagery,realisticfutureplanning,reviewofpastmemories,orjust"spacingout".[30][31][32] Seealso[edit] Creativevisualization CreativeWritersandDay-Dreaming Defaultmodenetwork Fantasypronepersonality Fantasy(psychology) Maladaptivedaydreaming Mind-wandering Streamofconsciousness(psychology) References[edit] ^Gilbert,DanielT.;Killingsworth,MatthewA.(2010-11-12)."AWanderingMindIsanUnhappyMind"(PDF).Science.330(6006):932.Bibcode:2010Sci...330..932K.doi:10.1126/science.1192439.ISSN 0036-8075.PMID 21071660.S2CID 24060648. ^abSinger,JeromeL.;Kaufman,ScottBarry;McMillan,Rebecca(2013)."Odetopositiveconstructivedaydreaming".FrontiersinPsychology.4:626.doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00626.ISSN 1664-1078.PMC 3779797.PMID 24065936. ^abcdKlinger,Eric(October1987).PsychologyToday. 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^Smallwood,Jonathan;Schooler,JonathanW.(November2006)."Therestlessmind".PsychologicalBulletin.132(6):946–58.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.946.ISSN 1939-1455.PMID 17073528.S2CID 18882553. ^Underwood,BentonJ.;Ekstrand,BruceR.(1967)."Effectofdistributedpracticeonpaired-associatelearning".JournalofExperimentalPsychology.73(4,Pt.2):1–21.doi:10.1037/h0024341.ISSN 0022-1015. ^Honeycutt,JamesM.;Vickery,AndreaJ.;Hatcher,LauraC.(2015-04-03)."TheDailyUseofImaginedInteractionFeatures".CommunicationMonographs.82(2):201–23.doi:10.1080/03637751.2014.953965.ISSN 0363-7751.S2CID 143513182. ^abPoerio,GiuliaLara;Smallwood,Jonathan(2016)."Daydreamingtonavigatethesocialworld:Whatweknow,whatwedon'tknow,andwhyitmatters".SocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass.10(11):605–18.doi:10.1111/spc3.12288. ^[4](registrationrequired) 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^abcShrimpton,Daisy;McGann,Deborah;Riby,LeighM.(2017-11-30)."DaydreamBeliever:Rumination,Self-ReflectionandtheTemporalFocusofMindWanderingContent".Europe'sJournalofPsychology.13(4):794–809.doi:10.5964/ejop.v13i4.1425.ISSN 1841-0413.PMC 5763464.PMID 29358989. ^abcdBarron,Evelyn;Riby,LeighM.;Greer,Joanna;Smallwood,Jonathan(2011-05-01)."AbsorbedinThought:TheEffectofMindWanderingontheProcessingofRelevantandIrrelevantEvents".PsychologicalScience.22(5):596–601.doi:10.1177/0956797611404083.ISSN 0956-7976.PMID 21460338.S2CID 9341870. ^abSmallwood,Jonathan;Davies,JohnB.;Heim,Derek;Finnigan,Frances;Sudberry,Megan;O'Connor,Rory;Obonsawin,Marc(2004-12-01)."Subjectiveexperienceandtheattentionallapse:Taskengagementanddisengagementduringsustainedattention".ConsciousnessandCognition.13(4):657–90.doi:10.1016/j.concog.2004.06.003.ISSN 1053-8100.PMID 15522626.S2CID 2514220. ^Strachey,J.(1953).TheStandardEditionoftheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud,VolumeV(1900–1901):TheInterpretationofDreams(SecondPart)andOnDreams.London:TheHogarthPressandtheInstituteofPsycho-analysis.p. 492. ^Zedelius,ClaireM.;Schooler,JonathanW.(2020-01-01)."Capturingthedynamicsofcreativedaydreaming".CreativityandtheWanderingMind.ExplorationsinCreativityResearch:55–72.doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-816400-6.00003-1.ISBN 9780128164006.S2CID 226645446. ^Rocca,R.E.(September1981)."[DirecteddaydreamingofRobertDesoille]".ActaPsiquiatricayPsicologicadeAmericaLatina.27(4–5):295–303.ISSN 0001-6896.PMID 7348086. ^D.Vaitl,J.Gruzelier,D.Lehmannetal.,"PsychobiologyofAlteredStatesofConsciousness,"PsychologicalBulletin,vol.131,no.1,2005,pp.98–127. ^Warren,Jeff(2007)."TheDaydream".TheHeadTrip:AdventuresontheWheelofConsciousness.Toronto:RandomHouseCanada.ISBN 978-0679314080. ^"Brain'sProblem-solvingFunctionAtWorkWhenWeDaydream".ScienceDaily.2009-05-12.Retrieved2009-05-19. ^Christoff,Kalina;AlanM.Gordon;JonathanSmallwood;RachelleSmith;JonathanW.Schooler(2009-05-11)."ExperiencesamplingduringfMRIrevealsdefaultnetworkandexecutivesystemcontributionstomindwandering".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.106(21):8719–24.Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.8719C.doi:10.1073/pnas.0900234106.PMC 2689035.PMID 19433790. ^Barrett,D.L.(1979)."TheHypnoticDream:ItsContentinComparisontoNocturnalDreamsandWakingFantasy".JournalofAbnormalPsychology.88:584–91.doi:10.1037/0021-843x.88.5.584. ^Barrett,D.L.(1996).FantasizersandDissociaters:TwotypesofHighHypnotizables,TwoImageryStyles.In:R.Kusendorf,N.Spanos,&B.Wallace(Eds.)HypnosisandImagination.NY:Baywood ^Barrett,D.L.(2010).Dissociaters,Fantasizers,andtheirRelationtoHypnotizability.In:Barrett,D.L.(Ed.)HypnosisandHypnotherapy,(2vol.):Vol.1:History,theoryandgeneralresearch,Vol.2:Psychotherapyresearchandapplications,NewYork:Praeger/Greenwood. Externallinks[edit] PsychologyTodayblogonPowerofDaydreamingbyAmyFries DaydreamsatWork:Wake-UpYourCreativePowersbyAmyFries Positiveeffectsofdaydreaming Daydreamingimprovesthinking(CosmosMagazine) Sitesummarisingresearchonmind-wanderinganddaydreaming Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Spain France(data) Germany Israel UnitedStates Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daydream&oldid=1086608046" Categories:PsychologicaladjustmentImaginationAbstractionIntrapersonalcommunicationHiddencategories:PageswithloginrequiredreferencesorsourcesCS1errors:missingtitleCS1errors:bareURLArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJune2020ArticleswithBNEidentifiersArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)БългарскиЧӑвашлаČeštinaDeutschEspañolEsperantoفارسیFrançaisGaeilge한국어ՀայերենBahasaIndonesiaעבריתಕನ್ನಡქართულიҚазақшаLietuviųمصرى日本語NorskbokmålPolskiPortuguêsРусскийSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaSvenskaதமிழ்Татарча/tatarçaTürkçeУкраїнська粵語中文 Editlinks