Offshoring - Wikipedia

Offshore outsourcing Offshoring FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Transnationalrelocationofoperations Thisarticleisaboutthebusinessprocessinvolvingasinglecompany.Foroffshoreoutsourcing,seeOutsourcing.Forotheruses,seeOffshore(disambiguation). Offshoringistherelocationofabusinessprocessfromonecountrytoanother—typicallyanoperationalprocess,suchasmanufacturing,orsupportingprocesses,suchasaccounting.Usuallythisreferstoacompanybusiness,althoughstategovernmentsmayalsoemployoffshoring.[1]Morerecently,technicalandadministrativeserviceshavebeenoffshored. Offshoringandoutsourcingarenotmutuallyinclusive:therecanbeonewithouttheother.Theycanbeintertwined(offshoreoutsourcing),andcanbeindividuallyorjointly,partiallyorcompletelyreversed,involvingtermssuchasreshoring,inshoring,andinsourcing. Offshoringiswhentheoffshoredworkisdonebymeansofaninternal(captive)deliverymodel.,[2]sometimesreferredtoasin-houseoffshore.[3] Importedservicesfromsubsidiariesorothercloselyrelatedsuppliersareincluded,whereasintermediategoods,suchaspartiallycompleted carsorcomputers,maynotbe.[4] Contents 1Motivation 2Destinations 3Frequentlyusedterms 3.1Productionoffshoring 3.2IT-enabledservicesoffshoring 3.3Re-shoring 3.3.1Reshoringterminology 4UnitedStates 4.1Governmentresponse 4.2Successstories 4.3Avoidingfailure 5UnitedKingdom 6R&Doffshoring 6.1Transferofintellectualproperty 7Debate 7.1Competitiveconcerns 7.2Impactonjobsinwesterncountries 7.3Publicopinion 8Effectsoffactorofproductionmobility 9History 9.1ImpactoftheInternet 9.2Ireland 9.3NAFTA 10Offshoreoutsourcing 10.1Criteria 10.2Sourceofconflict 11Seealso 12References 13Externallinks 14Furtherreading Motivation[edit] Lowercostandincreasedcorporateprofitabilityareoftenthemotivation,economistscallthislaborarbitrage.Morerecently,offshoringincentivesalsoincludeaccesstoqualifiedpersonnelabroad,inparticularintechnicalprofessions,anddecreasingthetimetomarket.[2] Jobsareaddedinthedestinationcountryprovidingthegoodsorservicesandaresubtractedfromthehigher-costlaborcountry.[5]Theincreasedsafetynetcostsoftheunemployedmaybeabsorbedbythegovernment(taxpayers)inthehigh-costcountryorbythecompanydoingtheoffshoring.EuropeexperiencedlessoffshoringthantheUnitedStatesduetopoliciesthatappliedmorecoststocorporationsandculturalbarriers.[6] Destinations[edit] AfteritsaccessiontotheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)in2001,thePeople'sRepublicofChinaemergedasaprominentdestinationforproductionoffshoring.Anotherfocusareahasbeenthesoftwareindustryaspartofglobalsoftwaredevelopmentanddevelopingglobalinformationsystems.Aftertechnicalprogressintelecommunicationsimprovedthepossibilitiesoftradeinservices,Indiabecameoneprominentdestinationforsuchoffshoring,thoughmanypartsoftheworldarenowemergingasoffshoredestinations. Frequentlyusedterms[edit] Offshoringisdefinedasthemovementofabusinessprocessdoneatacompanyinonecountrytothesamecompanyinanothercountry. Itisnotthesameasoutsourcing,whichisthemovementofinternalbusinessprocessestoanexternalorganizationalunit.Thisisdoneunderrestrictionsandstrategiesinordertoestablishconsistencywiththeoffshoreoutsourcingorganizations.Manycompaniesnowadaysoutsourcevariousprofessionalareasinthecompanysuchase-mailservices,payrollandcallcenter.Thesejobsarebeinghandledbyotherorganizationsthatspecializeineachsectorallowingtheoffshoringcompanytofocusmoreonotherbusinessconcerns. Subcontractinginthesamecountrywouldbeoutsourcing,butnotoffshoring.Acompanymovinganinternalbusinessunitfromonecountrytoanotherwouldbeoffshoringorphysicalrestructuring,butnotoutsourcing.Acompanysubcontractingabusinessunittoadifferentcompanyinanothercountrywouldbebothoutsourcingandoffshoring:Offshoreoutsourcing. Relatedtermsinclude nearshoring,-relocationofbusinessprocessesto(typically)lowercostforeignlocations,butinclosegeographicalproximity(e.g.,shiftingUnitedStates-basedbusinessprocessestoCanada,MexicoorLatinAmerica) inshoring,-pickingserviceswithinacountry bestshoringorrightshoring,pickingthe"bestshore"basedonvariouscriteria Businessprocessoutsourcing(BPO)referstooutsourcingarrangementswhenentirebusinessfunctions(suchasfinance,accounting,andcustomerservice)areoutsourced.Morespecifictermscanbefoundinthefieldofsoftwaredevelopment-forexampleGlobalInformationSystemasaclassofsystemsbeingdevelopedfor/bygloballydistributedteams. Bodyshoppingisthepracticeofusingoffshoredresourcesandpersonneltodosmalldisaggregatedtaskswithinabusinessenvironment,withoutanybroaderintentiontooffshoreanentirebusinessfunction. Offshoringcanbeseeninthecontextofeitherproductionoffshoringorservicesoffshoring,andreferstosubstitutionofaservicefromanycompany-ownedforeignsourceforoneformerlyproducedinthecompany'shomecountry,whetherornotoutsourcingisinvolved. Productionoffshoring[edit] Productionoffshoring,alsoknownasphysicalrestructuring,ofestablishedproductsinvolvesrelocationofphysicalmanufacturingprocessesoverseas,[7]usuallytoalower-costdestinationoronewithfewerregulatoryrestrictions. PhysicalrestructuringarrivedwhentheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)madeiteasierformanufacturerstoshiftproductionfacilitiesfromtheUStoMexico. ThistrendlatershiftedtoChina,whichofferedcheappricesthroughverylowwagerates,fewworkers'rightslaws,afixedcurrencypeggedtotheUSdollar,(currentlyfixedtoabasketofeconomies)cheaploans,cheapland,andfactoriesfornewcompanies,fewenvironmentalregulations,andhugeeconomiesofscalebasedoncitieswithpopulationsoveramillionworkersdedicatedtoproducingasinglekindofproduct.However,manycompaniesarereluctanttomovehighvalue-addedproductionofleading-edgeproductstoChinabecauseoflaxenforcementofintellectualpropertylaws.[8] IT-enabledservicesoffshoring[edit] GrowthofoffshoringofIT-enabledservices,bothtosubsidiariesandtooutsidecompanies(offshoreoutsourcing)islinkedtotheavailabilityoflargeamountsofreliableandaffordablecommunicationinfrastructurefollowingthetelecommunicationandInternetexpansionofthelate1990s.[9] Muchofthejobmovement,however,wastooutsidecompanies-offshoreoutsourcing. Re-shoring[edit] "Re-shoring",alsoknownas"backshoring"[10]or"inshoring"[11]isoffshoringthathasbeenbroughtbackonshore.[12] JohnUrry(distinguishedprofessorofsociologyatLancasterUniversity)arguesthattheconcealmentofincome,theavoidanceoftaxationandeludinglegislationrelatingtowork,finance,pleasure,waste,energyandsecuritymaybebecomingaseriousconcernfordemocraticgovernmentsandordinarycitizenswhomaybeadverselyaffectedbyunregulated,offshoreactivities.Further,therisingcostsoftransportationcouldleadtoproductionnearerthepointofconsumptionbecomingmoreeconomicallyviable,particularlyasnewtechnologiessuchasadditivemanufacturingmature.[13] Reshoringterminology[edit] Reshoring(alsoknownasonshoring,inshoringandbackshoring)istheactofreintroducingdomesticmanufacturingtoacountry.Itisthereverseprocessofoffshoring,wheremanufacturingismovedtoanothercountrywherelaborischeaper. TheWorldBank's2019WorldDevelopmentReportonthefutureofwork[14]considersthepotentialforautomationtodrivecompaniestoreshoreproduction,reducingtheroleoflaborintheprocess,andofferssuggestionsastohowgovernmentscanrespond.AsimilarmovementcanbeseenrelatedtoRoboticProcessAutomation,calledRPAorRPAAIforself-guidedRPA2.0basedonartificialintelligence,wheretheincentivetomoverepetitivesharedservicesworktolowercostcountriesispartiallytakenawaybytheprogressionoftechnology. UnitedStates[edit] Sincethe1980s[15]Americancompanieshavebeen"offshoring"andoutsourcingmanufacturingtolowcostcountriessuchasIndia,China,Malaysia,PakistanandVietnam. Governmentresponse[edit] PresidentObama's2011SelectUSAprogramwasthefirstfederalprogramtopromoteandfacilitateU.S.investmentinpartnershipwiththestates.ThisprogramandwebsitehelpscompaniesconnectwithresourcesavailableonaFederal,Stateandlocallevel.InJanuary2012,PresidentObamaissuedacalltoactionto"investinAmerica"attheWhiteHouse"InsourcingAmericanJobs"Forum.[16] Successstories[edit] Advancesin3Dprintingtechnologiesbroughtmanufacturersclosertotheircustomers.[17] Therehavebeenseveralverysuccessfulstoriesofcompanies.Inmostcaseshundredsifnotthousandsofjobswerecreatedorreinstated.InthecaseofStarbucks,in2012itsavedAmericanMugandSteinCompanyinEastLiverpool,Ohiofrombankruptcy.[18] Avoidingfailure[edit] Somecasesofreshoringhavenotbeensuccessful.OtisElevators'reshoringeffortdidnotgowell.[19]Otissaysitfailedtoconsidertheconsequencesofthenewlocationandtriedtodotoomuchatonce,includingasupply-chainsoftwareimplementation.Thisisnotanuncommonreshoringscenario.BringingmanufacturingbacktotheUnitedStatesisn'tsosimple,andtherearealotofconsiderationsandanalysesthatcompaniesmustdotodeterminethecostsandfeasibilityofreshoring.Somecompaniespursuereshoringwiththeirowninternalstaff.Butreshoringprojectsarecomplicatedandinvolveengineering,marketing,production,finance,andprocurement.Inaddition,therearerealestateconcerns,governmentincentivesandtrainingrequirementsthatrequireoutreachtothecommunity.Tohelpwiththeseprojects,companiesoftenturntoconsultantsthatspecializeinreshoring.[20] UnitedKingdom[edit] IntheUnitedKingdom,companieshaveusedthereintroductionofdomesticcallcentresasauniquesellingpoint.In2014,theRSAInsuranceGroupcompletedamoveofcallcentresbacktoBritain.[21]ThecallcentreindustryinIndiahasbeenhitbyreshoring,asbusinessesincludingBritishTelecom,SantanderUKandAvivaallannouncedtheywouldmoveoperationsbacktoBritaininordertoboosttheeconomyandregaincustomersatisfaction.[22] R&Doffshoring[edit] Productdesign,researchandthedevelopment(R&D)processisrelativelydifficulttooffshorebecauseR&D,toimproveproductsandcreatenewreferencedesigns,requiresahigherskillsetnotassociatedwithcheaplabor. Anabstractofastudypublished2019,whichdidnotincludeeitherIndiaorChina,anddidnotspecifywhethertheoffshoringwasalsooutsourcing,said"thatR&Doffshoringcontributespositivelytoproductivityinthehomecountry.".[23][24] Transferofintellectualproperty[edit] Thereisarelationshipbetweenoffshoringandpatent-systemstrength.Companiesunderastrongpatentsystemarenotafraidtomoveworkoffshorebecausetheirworkwillremaintheirproperty.Conversely,companiesincountrieswithweakpatentsystemshaveanincreasedfearofintellectualpropertytheftfromforeignvendorsorworkers,and,therefore,havelessoffshoring. Offshoringisoftenenabledbythetransferofvaluableinformationtotheoffshoresite.Suchinformationandtrainingenablestheremoteworkerstoproduceresultsofcomparablevaluepreviouslyproducedbyinternalemployees.Whensuchtransferincludesprotectedmaterials,asconfidentialdocumentsandtradesecrets,protectedbynon-disclosureagreements,thenintellectualpropertyhasbeentransferredorexported.Thedocumentationandvaluationofsuchexportsisquitedifficult,butshouldbeconsideredsinceitcomprisesitemsthatmayberegulatedortaxable. Debate[edit] Offshoringtoforeignsubsidiarieshasbeenacontroversialissuespurringheateddebatesamongeconomists.Jobsgotothedestinationcountryandlowercostofgoodsandservicestotheorigincountry. Ontheotherhand,joblossesandwageerosionindevelopedcountrieshavesparkedopposition.Freetradewithlow-wagecountriesiswin-loseformanyemployeeswhofindtheirjobsoffshoredorwithstagnatingwages.[25] Currencymanipulationbygovernmentsandtheircentralbankscausedifferencesinlaborcost.OnMay1,2002,EconomistandformerAmbassadorErnestH.PreegtestifiedbeforetheSenatecommitteeonBanking,Housing,andUrbanAffairsthatChina,forinstance,pegsitscurrencytothedollaratasub-parvalueinviolationofArticleIVoftheInternationalMonetaryFundArticlesofAgreementwhichstatethatnonationshallmanipulateitscurrencytogainamarketadvantage.[26] Competitiveconcerns[edit] In2015,ITemploymentintheUnitedStateshasrecentlyreachedpre-2001levels[27][28]andhasbeenrisingsince. Thenumberofjobslosttooffshoringislessthan1percentofthetotalUSlabormarket.[29]AccordingtoastudybytheHeritagefoundation,outsourcingrepresentsaverysmallproportionofjobslostintheUS.Thetotalnumberofjobslosttooffshoring,bothmanufacturingandtechnicalrepresentonly4percentofthetotaljobslostintheUS.Majorreasonsforcuttingjobsarefromcontractcompletionanddownsizing.[30]Someeconomistsandcommentatorsclaimthattheoffshoringphenomenoniswayoverblown.[30] Impactonjobsinwesterncountries[edit] TheEconomistreportedinJanuary2013that"HighlevelsofunemploymentinWesterncountriesafterthe2007-2008financialcrisishavemadethepublicinmanycountriessohostiletowardsoffshoringthatmanycompaniesarenowreluctanttoengageinit."[31]EconomistPaulKrugmanwrotein2007thatwhilefreetradeamonghigh-wagecountriesisviewedaswin-win,freetradewithlow-wagecountriesiswin-loseformanyemployeeswhofindtheirjobsoffshoredorwithstagnatingwages.[25] TwoestimatesoftheimpactofoffshoringonU.S.jobswerebetween150,000and300,000peryearfrom2004–2015.Thisrepresents10-15%ofU.S.jobcreation.[32] Theincreasedsafetynetcostsoftheunemployedmaybeabsorbedbythegovernment(taxpayers)inthehigh-costcountryorbythecompanydoingtheoffshoring.EuropeexperiencedlessoffshoringthantheU.S.duetopoliciesthatappliedmorecoststocorporationsandculturalbarriers.[6] Intheareaofserviceresearchhasfoundthatoffshoringhasmixedeffectsonwagesandemployment.[33][34][35][36][37][38] TheWorldBank's2019WorldDevelopmentReportonthefutureofwork[14]highlightshowoffshoringcanshapethedemandforskillsinreceivingcountriesandexploreshowincreasingautomationcanleadtoreshoringofproductioninsomecases. Publicopinion[edit] U.S.opinionpollsindicatethatbetween76-95%ofAmericanssurveyedagreedthat"outsourcingofproductionandmanufacturingworktoforeigncountriesisareasontheU.S.economyisstrugglingandmorepeoplearen'tbeinghired."[39][40] Effectsoffactorofproductionmobility[edit] Accordingtoclassicaleconomics,thethreefactorsofproductionareland,labor,andcapital.Offshoringreliesheavilyonthemobilityoflaborandcapital;landhaslittleornomobilitypotential. Inmicroeconomics,workingcapitalfundstheinitialcostsofoffshoring.Ifthestateheavilyregulateshowacorporationcanspenditsworkingcapital,itwillnotbeabletooffshoreitsoperations.Forthesamereasonthemacroeconomymustbefreeforoffshoringtosucceed. ComputersandtheInternetmadeworkintheservicesindustryelectronicallyportable.Mosttheoriesthatargueoffshoringeventuallybenefitsdomesticworkersassumethatthoseworkerswillbeabletoobtainnewjobs,evenifbyacceptinglowersalariesorbyretrainingthemselvesinanewfield.Foreignworkersbenefitfromnewjobsandhigherwageswhentheworkmovestothem. Laborscholarsarguethatgloballaborarbitrageleadstounethicalpractices,connectedtoexploitationofworkers,erodingworkconditionsanddecreasingjobsecurity.[41] History[edit] Inthedevelopedworld,movingmanufacturingjobsoutofthecountrydatestoatleastthe1960s[42]whilemovingknowledgeservicejobsoffshoredatestothe1970s[43]andhascontinuedsincethen.Itwascharacterizedprimarilybythetransferringoffactoriesfromthedevelopedtothedevelopingworld.Thisoffshoringandclosingoffactorieshascausedastructuralchangeinthedevelopedworldfromanindustrialtoapost-industrialservicesociety. Duringthe20thcentury,thedecreasingcostsoftransportationandcommunicationcombinedwithgreatdisparitiesonpayratesmadeincreasedoffshoringfromwealthiercountriestolesswealthycountriesfinanciallyfeasibleformanycompanies.Further,thegrowthoftheInternet,particularlyfiber-opticintercontinentallonghaulcapacity,andtheWorldWideWebreduced"transportation"costsformanykindsofinformationworktonearzero.[44] ImpactoftheInternet[edit] Regardlessofsize,companiesbenefitfromaccessibilitytolaborresourcesacrosstheworld.[45]ThisgaverisetobusinessmodelssuchasRemoteIn-Sourcingthatallowcompaniestotapintoresourcesfoundabroad,withoutlosingcontroloversecurityofproductquality. Newcategoriesofworksuchascallcentres,computerprogramming,readingmedicaldatasuchasX-raysandmagneticresonanceimaging,medicaltranscription,incometaxpreparation,andtitlesearchingarebeingoffshored. Ireland[edit] Beforethe1990s,IrelandwasoneofthepoorestcountriesintheEU.BecauseofIreland'srelativelylowcorporatetaxrates,UScompaniesbeganoffshoringofsoftware,electronic,andpharmaceuticalintellectualpropertytoIrelandforexport.Thishelpedcreateahigh-tech"boom"whichledtoIrelandbecomingoneoftherichestEUcountries.[44] NAFTA[edit] In1994theNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)wentintoeffect,anditincreasedthevelocityofphysicalrestructuring. Theplantocreatefreetradeareas(suchasFreeTradeAreaoftheAmericas)hasnotyetbeensuccessful.In2005,offshoringofskilledwork,alsoreferredtoasknowledgework,dramaticallyincreasedfromtheUS,whichfedthegrowingworriesaboutthreatsofjobloss.[44] Offshoreoutsourcing[edit] Therearefourbasictypesofoffshoreoutsourcing: Informationtechnologyoutsourcing(ITO)iswhereoutsourcingrelatedtotechnologyorinternetsuchascomputerprogramming. Businessprocessoutsourcing(BPO)involvescontractingoutofoperationalfunctionstoathirdpartyserviceprovider. Offshoresoftwaredevelopment Knowledgeprocessoutsourcing(KPO)isatypeofoutsourcingwhichinvolvesorrequiresamoreadvancedtechnicalskillandahigherlevelofexpertise. Criteria[edit] Thegeneralcriteriaforajobtobeoffshore-ableare: Thereisasignificantwagedifferencebetweentheoriginalandoffshorecountries; Remoteworkispossibleinthejob; TheworkcanbetransmittedovertheInternet; Theworkisrepeatable.[46] Sourceofconflict[edit] Theopposingsidesregardingoffshoring,outsourcing,andoffshoreoutsourcingarethoseseekinggovernmentinterventionandProtectionismversusthesideadvocatingFreeTrade.[47] JobsformerlyheldbyU.S.workershavebeenlost,evenasunderdevelopedcountriessuchasBrazilandTurkeyflourish.[48]Free-tradeadvocatessuggesteconomiesasawholewillobtainanetbenefitfromlaboroffshoring,[49]butitisunclearifthedisplacedreceiveanetbenefit.[50] Somewagesoverseasarerising.AstudybytheU.S.BureauofLaborStatisticsfoundthatChinesewageswerealmosttripledinthesevenyearsfollowing2002.Researchsuggeststhatthesewageincreasescouldredirectsomeoffshoringelsewhere.[51] Increasedtrainingandeducationhasbeenadvocatedtooffsettrade-relateddisplacements,butitisnolongeracomparativeadvantageofhigh-wagenationsbecauseeducationcostsarelowerinlow-wagecountries.[52] Seealso[edit] Anti-globalizationmovement Borderlessselling Callcentersecurity DeclineandFalloftheAmericanProgrammer Domesticsourcing Follow-the-sun Freetradecontroversy Globaldeliverymodel Globallaborarbitrage Globalsourcing Globality Globallyintegratedenterprise Guestworker Laborshortage Listofinternationaltradetopics Low-costcountrysourcing Offshorecompany OffshoringResearchNetwork ProgrammersGuild Restructuring Runawayproduction Taxhaven Bysector: Informationtechnologyconsulting Offshorecustomsoftwaredevelopment References[edit] ^Zuckerman,MichaelA.(November2008)."TheOffshoringofAmericanGovernment".CornellLawReview.SSRN 1143044.{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) 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"IndustrialPropertyBoostasManufacturersReturnHome".BirminghamPost.December4,2014.[deadlink] vteGlobalization Journals Outline Studies Aspects Alter-globalization Anti-globalization Culturalglobalization Deglobalization Democraticglobalization Economicglobalization Environmentalglobalization Financialglobalization Globalcitizenship education Globalgovernance Globalpolitics Globalhealth Globality Historyof archaic earlymodern Militaryglobalization Politicalglobalization Tradeglobalization Workforceglobalization IssuesGlobal Climatechange Climatejustice Disease COVID-19pandemic Digitaldivide Laborarbitrage Population Taxhavens Offshorefinancialcentres Taxinversions Watercrisis Other Braindrain reverse Caredrain Developmentaid Economicinequality Endangeredlanguages Fairtrade Forceddisplacement Humanrights Illicitfinancialflows Imperialism academic cultural linguistic media scientific social Invasivespecies Investor-statedisputes McDonaldization Newinternationaldivisionoflabour North–Southdivide Offshoring Racetothebottom pollutionhavens Transnationalcrime Westernization Worldwar Theories Capitalaccumulation Dependency Development Earthsystem Fiscallocalism Modernization ecological historyof Primitiveaccumulation Socialchange Worldhistory World-systems NotablescholarsEconomics DavidAutor RichardBaldwin RaviBatra JagdishBhagwati RobertBrenner JayatiGhosh MichaelHudson BrankoMilanović KevinO'Rourke ThomasPiketty DaniRodrik JeffreySachs JosephStiglitz Politicaleconomy SamirAmin GiovanniArrighi RobertW.Cox AndreGunderFrank StephenGill PeterGowan DavidHarvey RonenPalan SusanStrange RobertWade Politics/sociology ArjunAppadurai DanieleArchibugi K.AnthonyAppiah UlrichBeck WaldenBello JeanBaudrillard ZygmuntBauman ManuelCastells ChristopherChase-Dunn AlfredCrosby NancyFraser SusanGeorge AnthonyGiddens MichaelHardt DavidHeld PaulHirst L.H.M.Ling AntonioNegri GeorgeRitzer SaskiaSassen JohnUrry ImmanuelWallerstein Non–academic NoamChomsky ThomasFriedman NaomiKlein JohnR.Saul VandanaShiva Category  Businessportal Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Spain France(data) Germany Israel UnitedStates Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&oldid=1079674504" Categories:OffshoringBusinesstermsEconomicglobalizationInternationalbusinessInternationaltradeOffshorefinanceOutsourcingHiddencategories:CS1errors:missingperiodicalWebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataAllarticleswithdeadexternallinksArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromJuly2021ArticleswithBNEidentifiersArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Languages العربيةCatalàDanskDeutschEspañolEuskaraفارسیFrançaisGaeilge한국어हिन्दीBahasaIndonesiaItalianoעבריתLietuviųLombardNederlands日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskPolskiPortuguêsРусскийСрпски/srpskiSuomiSvenskaУкраїнськаTiếngViệt Editlinks